The Phrygians were an ancient people who inhabited the central and western regions of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) during the first millennium BCE. Their civilization is often overshadowed by their contemporaries, such as the Hittites and the Greeks, but the Phrygians played a crucial role in shaping the culture and politics of the ancient Near East. They are perhaps most famous for their mythological king Midas, known for his legendary “golden touch,” and for their contributions to music, religion, and early forms of statecraft.
This article explores the origins, history, culture, and eventual decline of the Phrygians, offering a detailed look at one of the lesser-known civilizations of the ancient world.
The Origins of the Phrygians
The origins of the Phrygians are shrouded in mystery, but historical and archaeological evidence suggests that they were part of the larger Indo-European migration that took place in the late second millennium BCE. The Phrygians are thought to have migrated from the Balkans or Thrace, crossing into Anatolia around the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire in the 12th century BCE.
By the early Iron Age, the Phrygians had established themselves in central Anatolia, where they occupied the area that would later become their heartland. Their capital was located at Gordion, near the modern city of Polatlı, about 70 miles southwest of Ankara. Gordion would become a major political and cultural center during the height of Phrygian power.
The Phrygians are closely associated with the early development of the region’s agricultural and metalworking traditions, and their cultural influence extended to neighboring civilizations, including the Lydians and Greeks.
Phrygian Society and Culture
The Phrygian civilization was characterized by a sophisticated society with a rich cultural and religious life. Much of what we know about their society comes from archaeological evidence, ancient texts, and later Greek sources.
1. Religion and Mythology
The Phrygians practiced a form of polytheism centered around nature worship, with their primary deity being the Great Mother goddess, known as Cybele. Cybele was worshiped as a fertility and earth goddess, and her cult spread far beyond Phrygia, influencing later Greek and Roman religious practices.
The Phrygian Mysteries, religious rites associated with Cybele, were closely tied to the cycles of nature, fertility, and death, and were often celebrated with music, dance, and ecstatic rituals. Cybele’s cult included priestesses and eunuch priests known as Galli, and her worship was centered in sanctuaries scattered across the Phrygian kingdom, including her major temple at Pessinus.
Phrygian religious practices also included animal sacrifice, particularly bulls and rams, and their funerary customs reflected a belief in an afterlife, with elaborate tombs and burial mounds (called tumuli) that contained grave goods for use in the next life.
2. Phrygian Art and Architecture
Phrygian art was deeply influenced by both Hittite and Greek traditions but had its own unique characteristics. Phrygian pottery, metalwork, and sculpture were highly developed, with intricate designs that often depicted animals and mythological scenes. They were skilled in bronze working, producing weapons, tools, and decorative items.
One of the most famous examples of Phrygian architecture is the tumulus tombs found at Gordion, which are believed to be the burial places of Phrygian kings, including the tomb of King Midas. These tombs are impressive feats of engineering, consisting of large mounds covering stone burial chambers filled with valuable objects such as jewelry, pottery, and weapons.
3. Music and the Phrygian Mode
The Phrygians are often associated with the development of music, particularly through the invention of the Phrygian mode, a musical scale that would later be adopted by the Greeks. In ancient Greece, the Phrygian mode was considered to have an emotional and mystical quality, often used in religious and ceremonial music.
According to Greek myth, the Phrygians also introduced the aulos, a wind instrument similar to a double flute, which was used in the worship of Cybele and in other religious ceremonies. The Phrygian influence on music is one of the civilization’s lasting legacies, as their scales and instruments were adopted by later Mediterranean cultures.
The Rise of Phrygia and King Midas
By the 8th century BCE, Phrygia had become a powerful kingdom under the leadership of King Midas, the most famous ruler of Phrygia. Midas is best known from Greek mythology for his “golden touch”, the ability to turn anything he touched into gold, which ultimately became a curse. According to legend, Midas eventually asked the gods to relieve him of this power, and he was instructed to wash his hands in the Pactolus River, which supposedly became rich in gold as a result.
In historical reality, King Midas ruled during a period of Phrygian prosperity and expansion. Under his reign, Phrygia grew into a significant political and economic power in Anatolia, engaging in trade with the Assyrians, Greeks, and other neighboring civilizations. Gordion, the capital city, became a major center of wealth and culture, attracting artisans and traders from across the region.
Midas also established diplomatic relations with the Greek city-states and is mentioned in Greek sources, which often portray him as a wealthy and generous king. The Phrygian kingdom reached its zenith under his rule, but its decline was soon to follow.
The Decline of the Phrygian Kingdom
The collapse of Phrygia is closely linked to the invasion of the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the northern steppes, who swept through Anatolia in the 7th century BCE. The Cimmerians are believed to have sacked Gordion and may have contributed to the downfall of the Phrygian kingdom. According to ancient sources, King Midas committed suicide by drinking bull’s blood after the fall of his capital, though this account is likely more legend than fact.
Following the Cimmerian invasion, Phrygia never fully recovered its former glory. The kingdom was eventually absorbed into the growing Lydian Empire and later the Persian Empire. Despite their political decline, the Phrygians continued to exist as a cultural entity, and their influence persisted in the religious and artistic traditions of Anatolia and Greece.
Phrygian Influence on Later Civilizations
Although Phrygia as a political entity disappeared, the cultural and religious impact of the Phrygians was long-lasting. The worship of Cybele spread throughout the Mediterranean and was later incorporated into the Roman pantheon, where she became known as Magna Mater or the “Great Mother.”
Phrygian architecture and artistic styles influenced the Lydians, Greeks, and other Anatolian peoples. The Phrygian mode in music also continued to be used in ancient Greece and had a lasting influence on Western music theory.
Additionally, the Phrygians are often mentioned in later historical sources, including the works of Herodotus and Pausanias, and their legendary King Midas remains a figure of fascination in both historical and mythological contexts.
Modern Discoveries and Archaeology
Excavations at Gordion have provided much of the information we know about the Phrygian kingdom. Archaeologists have uncovered the remains of fortifications, monumental buildings, and royal tombs, as well as countless artifacts that shed light on the daily lives, religious practices, and political structures of the Phrygians.
One of the most significant finds is the Tomb of Midas, also known as Tumulus MM (for “Midas Mound”). This massive burial mound contains the remains of a Phrygian king—likely Midas or a close relative—along with an array of grave goods, including intricately carved wooden furniture, textiles, and metal objects. These findings have provided valuable insights into the wealth and craftsmanship of Phrygian society.
The ongoing exploration of Phrygian sites continues to reveal new aspects of this ancient civilization, further expanding our understanding of their contributions to the ancient world.
Conclusion: The Legacy of the Phrygians
The Phrygians, once a dominant force in ancient Anatolia, left an indelible mark on the history and culture of the region. Though their kingdom ultimately fell to invading forces, their influence can still be seen in the religious practices, music, and art of later civilizations. The legacy of King Midas, the worship of Cybele, and their contributions to ancient music continue to echo through history, reminding us of the richness and complexity of the Phrygian civilization.
As archaeological discoveries continue, the story of the Phrygians—a people who thrived in the crossroads of ancient empires—remains a captivating chapter in the history of the ancient world.